An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and devices connected by communications channels that facilitates communications among users and allows users to share resources with other users. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics. This article provides a general, that uses the Internet Protocol The Internet Protocol is a protocol used for communicating data across a packet-switched internetwork using the Internet Protocol Suite, also referred to as TCP/IP for communication between its nodes.^[1] An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification The function of identification is to map a known quantity to an unknown entity so as to make it known. The known quantity is called the identifier and the unknown entity is what needs identification. A basic requirement for identification is that the ID be unique. IDs may be scoped, that is, they are unique only within a particular scope. IDs may and location addressing In computing, a logical address is the address at which an item appears to reside from the perspective of an executing application program. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name A hostname is a label that is assigned to a device connected to a computer network and that is used to identify the device in various forms of electronic communication such as the World Wide Web, e-mail or Usenet. Hostnames may be simple names consisting of a single word or phrase, or they may include the name of a Domain Name System domain at the indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."^[2]

The designers of TCP/IP defined an IP address as a 32-bit In computer architecture, 32-bit integers, memory addresses, or other data units are those that are at most 32 bits wide. Also, 32-bit CPU and ALU architectures are those that are based on registers, address buses, or data buses of that size. 32-bit is also a term given to a generation of computers in which 32-bit processors were the norm number^[1] and this system, known as Internet Protocol Version 4 Internet Protocol version 4 is the fourth revision in the development of the Internet Protocol (IP) and it is the first version of the protocol to be widely deployed. Together with IPv6, it is at the core of standards-based internetworking methods of the Internet. IPv4 is still by far the most widely deployed Internet Layer protocol. As of 2010[ or IPv4, is still in use today. However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet and the resulting depletion of available addresses, a new addressing system (IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6 is an Internet Protocol version which is designed to succeed IPv4, the first implementation which is still in dominant use currently[update]. It is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched internetworks. The main driving force for the redesign of Internet Protocol is the foreseeable IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, was developed in 1995^[3] and last standardized by RFC 2460 in 1998.^[4] Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers The binary numeral system, or base-2 number system, represents numeric values using two symbols, 0 and 1. More specifically, the usual base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Owing to its straightforward implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates, the binary system is used internally by all modern computers, they are usually displayed in human-readable A human-readable medium or human-readable format is a representation of data or information that can be naturally read by humans notations, such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4 Internet Protocol version 4 is the fourth revision in the development of the Internet Protocol (IP) and it is the first version of the protocol to be widely deployed. Together with IPv6, it is at the core of standards-based internetworking methods of the Internet. IPv4 is still by far the most widely deployed Internet Layer protocol. As of 2010[), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6 is an Internet Protocol version which is designed to succeed IPv4, the first implementation which is still in dominant use currently[update]. It is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched internetworks. The main driving force for the redesign of Internet Protocol is the foreseeable IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6).

The Internet Protocol also routes Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network (Circuit switching) , electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and transportation networks. This article is concerned primarily with routing in electronic data networks data packets In information technology, a packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a packet mode computer network. Computer communications links that do not support packets, such as traditional point-to-point telecommunications links, simply transmit data as a series of bytes, characters, or bits alone. When data is formatted into packets, the bitrate of between networks; IP addresses specify the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology Network topology is defined as the interconnection of the various elements of a computer network. Network Topologies can be physical or logical. Physical Topology means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology refers to the fact that how data actually transfers in a network as of the routing Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network (Circuit switching) , electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and transportation networks. This article is concerned primarily with routing in electronic data networks system. For this purpose, some of the bits in an IP address are used to designate a subnetwork A subnetwork, or subnet, is a logically visible, distinctly addressed part of a single Internet Protocol network. The process of subnetting is the division of a computer network into groups of computers that have a common, designated IP address routing prefix. The number of these bits is indicated in CIDR notation CIDR notation is a compact specification of an Internet Protocol address and its associated routing prefix. Classless Inter-Domain Routing is an Internet Protocol (IP) address allocation and route aggregation methodology used within the Internet addressing architecture that replaced the IPv4 classful network organization of the IP address space, appended to the IP address; e.g., 208.77.188.166/24.

As the development of private networks In the Internet addressing architecture, a private network is a network that uses private IP address space, following the standards set by RFC 1918 and RFC 4193. These addresses are commonly used for home, office, and enterprise local area networks , when globally routable addresses are not mandatory, or are not available for the intended network raised the threat of IPv4 address exhaustion IPv4 address exhaustion is the decreasing supply of unallocated IPv4 addresses available at the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and the regional Internet registries for assignment to end users and local Internet registries, such as Internet service providers, RFC 1918 set aside a group of private address spaces that may be used by anyone on private networks. They are often used with network address translators In computer networking, network address translation is the process of modifying network address information in datagram (IP) packet headers while in transit across a traffic routing device for the purpose of remapping a given address space into another to connect to the global public Internet.

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority is the entity that oversees global IP address allocation, root zone management for the Domain Name System (DNS), media types, and other Internet Protocol related assignments. It is operated by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, better known as ICANN (IANA), which manages the IP address space allocations globally, cooperates with five Regional Internet Registries A Regional Internet Registry is an organization overseeing the allocation and registration of Internet number resources within a particular region of the world. Resources include IP addresses (both IPv4 and IPv6) and autonomous system numbers (for use in BGP routing) (RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to Local Internet Registries A Local Internet Registry is an organization which has received an IP address allocation from a Regional Internet Registry (RIR), and which may assign parts of this allocation to its own customers. An LIR is thus typically an Internet service provider. To become a LIR, membership of a RIR is required (Internet service providers An Internet service provider , also sometimes referred to as an Internet access provider (IAP), is a company that offers its customers access to the Internet[citation needed]. The ISP connects to its customers using a data transmission technology appropriate for delivering Internet Protocol Paradigm, such as dial-up, DSL, cable modem, wireless or) and other entities.

IP versions

Two versions of the Internet Protocol (IP) are in use: IP Version 4 and IP Version 6. (See IP version history The Internet Protocol is a protocol used for communicating data across a packet-switched internetwork using the Internet Protocol Suite, also referred to as TCP/IP for details.) Each version defines an IP address differently. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4 Internet Protocol version 4 is the fourth revision in the development of the Internet Protocol (IP) and it is the first version of the protocol to be widely deployed. Together with IPv6, it is at the core of standards-based internetworking methods of the Internet. IPv4 is still by far the most widely deployed Internet Layer protocol. As of 2010[.

IP version 4 addresses

IPv4 uses 32-bit A bit or binary digit is the basic unit of information in computing and telecommunications; it is the amount of information that can be stored by a digital device or other physical system that can usually exist in only two distinct states. These may be the two stable positions of an electrical switch, two distinct voltage or current levels allowed (4-byte The byte is a unit of digital information in computing and telecommunications. It is an ordered collection of bits, in which each bit denotes the binary value of 1 or 0. Historically, a byte was the number of bits (typically 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 16) used to encode a single character of text in a computer and it is for this reason the basic) addresses, which limits the address space In computing, an address space defines a range of discrete addresses, each of which may correspond to a physical or virtual memory register, a network host, peripheral device, disk sector, or other logical or physical entity. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority allocates ranges of numbers to various registries in order to enable them to each to 4,294,967,296 (2³²) possible unique addresses. IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks In the Internet addressing architecture, a private network is a network that uses private IP address space, following the standards set by RFC 1918 and RFC 4193. These addresses are commonly used for home, office, and enterprise local area networks , when globally routable addresses are not mandatory, or are not available for the intended network (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses In computer networking a multicast address is an identifier for a group of hosts that have joined a multicast group. Multicast addressing can be used in the Link Layer , such as Ethernet multicast, as well as at the Internet Layer (OSI Layer 3) as IPv4 or IPv6 multicast (~270 million addresses).

IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation In computer networking, dot-decimal notation is a method of writing binary numbers in octet grouped base-10 (decimal) numbers separated by dots (full stops) (four numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g. 208.77.188.166). Each part represents 8 bits of the address, and is therefore called an octet Octet refers to an entity having exactly eight bits. As such, it is often used where the term byte might be ambiguous. For that reason, computer networking standards almost exclusively use octet. It is prominently used in Requests for Comments published by the Internet Engineering Task Force. The earliest example is RFC 635 from 1974. In France,. In less common cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in hexadecimal In mathematics and computer science, hexadecimal is a positional numeral system with a radix, or base, of 16. It uses sixteen distinct symbols, most often the symbols 0–9 to represent values zero to nine, and A, B, C, D, E, F (or alternatively a through f) to represent values ten to fifteen. For example, the hexadecimal number 2AF3 is equal, in, octal The octal numeral system, or oct for short, is the base-8 number system, and uses the digits 0 to 7. Numerals can be made from binary numerals by grouping consecutive binary digits into groups of three . For example, the binary representation for decimal 74 is 1001010, which can be grouped into (00)1 001 010 — so the octal representation is 112, or binary The binary numeral system, or base-2 number system, represents numeric values using two symbols, 0 and 1. More specifically, the usual base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Owing to its straightforward implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates, the binary system is used internally by all modern computers representations. In most representations each octet is converted individually.

IPv4 subnetting

In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol,^[1] network administrators interpreted an IP address in two parts, network number portion and host number portion. The highest order octet (most significant eight bits) in an address was designated the network number and the rest of the bits were called the rest field or host identifier and were used for host numbering within a network. This method soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent from the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network Classful network is a term that is used to describe the network architecture of the Internet until around 1993. It divided the address space for Internet Protocol Version 4 into five address classes. Each class, coded by the first three bits of the address, defined a different size or type (unicast or multicast) of the network architecture.^[2]

Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address was defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for universal unicast In computer networking, unicast transmission is the sending of messages to a single network destination host on a packet switching network addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes (B and C). The following table gives an overview of this now obsolete system.

The articles 'subnetwork A subnetwork, or subnet, is a logically visible, distinctly addressed part of a single Internet Protocol network. The process of subnetting is the division of a computer network into groups of computers that have a common, designated IP address routing prefix' and 'classful network Classful network is a term that is used to describe the network architecture of the Internet until around 1993. It divided the address space for Internet Protocol Version 4 into five address classes. Each class, coded by the first three bits of the address, defined a different size or type (unicast or multicast) of the network' explain the details of this design.

Although classful network design was a successful developmental stage, it proved unscalable In telecommunications and software engineering, scalability is a desirable property of a system, a network, or a process, which indicates its ability to either handle growing amounts of work in a graceful manner or to be readily enlarged. For example, it can refer to the capability of a system to increase total throughput under an increased load in the rapid expansion of the Internet and was abandoned when Classless Inter-Domain Routing Classless Inter-Domain Routing is a methodology of allocating IP addresses and routing Internet Protocol packets. It was introduced in 1993 to replace the prior addressing architecture of classful network design in the Internet with the goal to slow the growth of routing tables on routers across the Internet, and to help prevent the rapid (CIDR) was created for the allocation of IP address blocks and new rules of routing protocol packets using IPv4 addresses. CIDR is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing on arbitrary-length prefixes.

Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions.

IPv4 private addresses

Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks In the Internet addressing architecture, a private network is a network that uses private IP address space, following the standards set by RFC 1918 and RFC 4193. These addresses are commonly used for home, office, and enterprise local area networks , when globally routable addresses are not mandatory, or are not available for the intended network developed and public address space needed to be conserved (IPv4 address exhaustion IPv4 address exhaustion is the decreasing supply of unallocated IPv4 addresses available at the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and the regional Internet registries for assignment to end users and local Internet registries, such as Internet service providers).

Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally-unique IP addresses. Three ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks In the Internet addressing architecture, a private network is a network that uses private IP address space, following the standards set by RFC 1918 and RFC 4193. These addresses are commonly used for home, office, and enterprise local area networks , when globally routable addresses are not mandatory, or are not available for the intended network, one range for each class (A, B, C), were reserved in RFC 1918. These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry.

Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network address translation (NAT).

Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).

IPv4 address depletion

The IP version 4 address space is rapidly nearing exhaustion of available, officially assignable address blocks.

IP version 6 addresses

The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space, despite conservation techniques, prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the Internet's addressing capability. The permanent solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet Protocol itself. This next generation of the Internet Protocol, aimed to replace IPv4 on the Internet, was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995^[3][4] The address size was increased from 32 to 128 bits or 16 octets, which, even with a generous assignment of network blocks, is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. Mathematically, the new address space provides the potential for a maximum of 2¹²⁸, or about 3.403 × 10³⁸ unique addresses.

The new design is not based on the goal to provide a sufficient quantity of addresses alone, but rather to allow efficient aggregation of subnet routing prefixes to occur at routing nodes. As a result, routing table sizes are smaller, and the smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet for 2⁶⁴ hosts, which is the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address utilization rates will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment—that is the local administration of the segment's available space—from the addressing prefix used to route external traffic for a network. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks should the global connectivity or the routing policy change without requiring internal redesign or renumbering.

The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is not the need to have complex address conservation methods as used in classless inter-domain routing (CIDR).

All modern^[update] desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6 protocol, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as home networking routers, voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals.

Example of an IPv6 address:

2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7334

IPv6 private addresses

Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private or internal networks, there are blocks of addresses set aside in IPv6 for private addresses. In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULA). RFC 4193 sets aside the routing prefix fc00::/7 for this block which is divided into two /8 blocks with different implied policies (cf. IPv6) The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted.

Early designs (RFC 3513) used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed site-local addresses. However, the definition of what constituted sites remained unclear and the poorly defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. The address range specification was abandoned and must no longer be used in new systems.

Addresses starting with fe80: — called link-local addresses — are assigned only in the local link area. The addresses are generated usually automatically by the operating system's IP layer for each network interface. This provides instant automatic network connectivity for any IPv6 host and means that if several hosts connect to a common hub or switch, they have an instant communication path via their link-local IPv6 address. This feature is used extensively, and invisibly to most users, in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration (cf. Neighbor Discovery Protocol).

None of the private address prefixes may be routed in the public Internet.

IP subnetworks

The technique of subnetting can operate in both IPv4 and IPv6 networks. The IP address is divided into two parts: the network address and the host identifier. The subnet mask (in IPv4 only) or the CIDR prefix determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts.

The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.

Static vs dynamic IP addresses

When a computer is configured to use the same IP address each time it powers up, this is known as a static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is assigned automatically, it is known as a dynamic IP address.

Method of assignment

Static IP addresses are manually assigned to a computer by an administrator. The exact procedure varies according to platform. This contrasts with dynamic IP addresses, which are assigned either by the computer interface or host software itself, as in Zeroconf, or assigned by a server using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Even though IP addresses assigned using DHCP may stay the same for long periods of time, they can generally change. In some cases, a network administrator may implement dynamically assigned static IP addresses. In this case, a DHCP server is used, but it is specifically configured to always assign the same IP address to a particular computer. This allows static IP addresses to be configured centrally, without having to specifically configure each computer on the network in a manual procedure.

In the absence or failure of static or stateful (DHCP) address configurations, an operating system may assign an IP address to a network interface using state-less autoconfiguration methods, such as Zeroconf.

Uses of dynamic addressing

Dynamic IP addresses are most frequently assigned on LANs and broadband networks by Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. They are used because it avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows many devices to share limited address space on a network if only some of them will be online at a particular time. In most current desktop operating systems, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default so that a user does not need to manually enter any settings to connect to a network with a DHCP server. DHCP is not the only technology used to assign dynamic IP addresses. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol.

Sticky dynamic IP address

A sticky dynamic IP address or sticky IP is an informal term used by cable and DSL Internet access subscribers to describe a dynamically assigned IP address that does not change often. The addresses are usually assigned with the DHCP protocol. Since the modems are usually powered-on for extended periods of time, the address leases are usually set to long periods and simply renewed upon expiration. If a modem is turned off and powered up again before the next expiration of the address lease, it will most likely receive the same IP address.

Address autoconfiguration

RFC 3330 defines an address block, 169.254.0.0/16, for the special use in link-local addressing for IPv4 networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the fe80::/10 subnet.

These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private addresses cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet.

When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation that called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). Due to Microsoft's market power, APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry. Many years later, the IETF defined a formal standard for this functionality, RFC 3927, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses.

Uses of static addressing

Some infrastructure situations have to use static addressing, such as when finding the Domain Name System host that will translate domain names to IP addresses. Static addresses are also convenient, but not absolutely necessary, to locate servers inside an enterprise. An address obtained from a DNS server comes with a time to live, or caching time, after which it should be looked up to confirm that it has not changed. Even static IP addresses do change as a result of network administration (RFC 2072)

Modifications to IP addressing

IP blocking and firewalls

Firewalls are common on today^[update]'s Internet. For increased network security, they control access to private networks based on the public IP of the client. Whether using a blacklist or a whitelist, the IP address that is blocked is the perceived public IP address of the client, meaning that if the client is using a proxy server or NAT, blocking one IP address might block many individual people.

IP address translation

Multiple client devices can appear to share IP addresses: either because they are part of a shared hosting web server environment or because an IPv4 network address translator (NAT) or proxy server acts as an intermediary agent on behalf of its customers, in which case the real originating IP addresses might be hidden from the server receiving a request. A common practice is to have a NAT hide a large number of IP addresses in a private network. Only the "outside" interface(s) of the NAT need to have Internet-routable addresses^[5].

Most commonly, the NAT device maps TCP or UDP port numbers on the outside to individual private addresses on the inside. Just as a telephone number may have site-specific extensions, the port numbers are site-specific extensions to an IP address.

In small home networks, NAT functions usually take place in a residential gateway device, typically one marketed as a "router". In this scenario, the computers connected to the router would have 'private' IP addresses and the router would have a 'public' address to communicate with the Internet. This type of router allows several computers to share one public IP address.

Tools

In Windows the IP address can be determined by using the command-line tool ipconfig. In Unix the command-line ifconfig performs this function. ifconfig is available on Linux as well, though iproute2's "ip" command is sometimes more appropriate.

The IP address corresponding to a domain name can be determined by using nslookup example.net or dig example.net.

Standardization

See also

• Classful network
• Geolocation
• Geolocation software
• Hierarchical name space
• hostname: a human-readable alpha-numeric designation that may map to an IP address
• Internet
• Internet service provider
• IP address spoofing
• IP blocking
• IP Multicast
• IP2Location, a geolocation system using IP addresses.
• List of assigned /8 IP address blocks
• MAC address
• Ping
• Private network
• Provider-aggregatable address space
• Provider-independent address space
• Regional Internet Registry
  • African Network Information Center
  • American Registry for Internet Numbers
  • Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre
  • Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry
  • RIPE Network Coordination Centre
• Subnet address
• Virtual IP address
• WHOIS

Notes

• Comer, Douglas (2000). Internetworking with TCP/IP:Principles, Protocols, and Architectures --4th ed.. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-018380-6. http://www.cs.purdue.edu/homes/dec/netbooks.html.

References

1. ^ ^{a b c} RFC 760, "DOD Standard Internet Protocol". DARPA Request For Comments. Internet Engineering Task Force. January 1980. http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0760.txt. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
2. ^ ^{a b} RFC 791, "Internet Protocol". DARPA Request For Comments. Internet Engineering Task Force. September 1981. pp. 6. http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc791.txt. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
3. ^ ^{a b} RFC 1883, "Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification". Request For Comments. The Internet Society. December 1995. http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1883.txt. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
4. ^ ^{a b} RFC 2460, Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification, S. Deering, R. Hinden, The Internet Society (December 1998)
5. ^ Comer pg.394

External links

• IP at the Open Directory Project
• Understanding IP Addressing: Everything You Ever Wanted To Know

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